Introduction
Many influences come to bear in the development of primitive Christianity. Understood initially as a sect of Judaism, Christianity was profoundly influenced by first-century Judaism. This post looks at the following elements of first century Judaism and their influence on Christianity: 1) the different sects of Judaism, 2) the institution of the synagogue, and 3) important contemporary philosophical or cultural movements.Different Sects of Judaism
First century Judaism was divided into a number of sects reflecting different approaches toward the Law of Moses. We will look at these sects in order: the Sadducees, the Pharisees, the Essenes, and the Herodians. The Sadducees were those belonging to the aristocratic political party. High priests were drawn from the Sadducees. Although their origins trace back to the Maccabean movement of 167 BC that forcefully resisted the Hellenizing policies of the Seleucid kings, over time the Sadducees embraced Hellenism and became marked by political ambition and religious indifference. They could be characterized as conservatives because they held to the Law of Moses alone apart from its later traditions of interpretive precedent. As such, they rejected notions that were progressively revealed later on such as a physical resurrection, personal immortality, and the existence of spirit beings like angels and demons. Since they controlled the high priesthood with its center in the Temple and they participated in the Sanhedrin, a body of advisors and legal interpreters, they were politically influential but unpopular because of chronic association with corruption (Walker 13).The Pharisees, whose name means the Separated, were another sect. They advocated the exact keeping of the Law of Moses as interpreted by the mass of interpretive precedents. Their numbers were small since the average Jew lacked the resources to learn much less keep the detailed requirements of the Law. They strictly rejected Hellenistic influences but did embrace the doctrinal influence from Persia of the existence of spirits such as angels and demons. They also accepted the belief in the physical resurrection as well as a future Judgment Day with rewards and punishments. Although the Pharisees themselves had contempt for the Jewish masses, most Jews admired the Pharisees and held them as cultural heroes because of their commendable zealousness. Generally speaking, the Pharisee sect had two major shortcomings: 1) an emphasis on external conformity to the Law, which easily became a substitute for inward righteousness and affection for God Himself and 2) an incredibly high set of legal standards, which effectively disenfranchised the common Jew who was not at liberty to become a professional Law-keeper (13 - 14). From the sect of the Pharisees came a number of early followers of Jesus, including Sts. Paul and Nicodemus, as well as according to Orthodox tradition St. Gamaliel.
The Essenes were a group of close-knit communities that dissented from the official Judaism of Jerusalem. They believed themselves to be the faithful remnant of Israel. They reckoned themselves “enlightened” and their interpretation of the Law to be the only correct one. This interpretation was that given by someone referred to as the “Teacher of Righteousness”, but his exact identity has been lost to history. Some Essene communities allowed marriage; others did not. Their sacraments included periodic washings, an annual covenant-renewal event, and a sacred meal of bread and wine. They observed strict discipline in their communities as well as set up a societal organization chart somewhat parallel to that of official Judaism as described in a document called Manual of Discipline. In addition to a tendency toward legalism, there was a mystical side to their worship as preserved in a document called Psalms of Thanksgiving. The Essenes undoubtedly influenced Christianity, but the precise points of interaction are lost to history. It is possible that John the Baptist and other early disciples of Jesus were Essenes (15 - 16).
The Herodians are a final sect of first-century Judaism that will be mentioned just in passing. They seem fully a political party. They were the supporters of the Herodian dynasty that the Romans put in place to govern Judea. The founder of the dynasty, known as Herod the Great, was a half-Jew and a Roman client king of Judea. He contributed to the material prosperity of the land through a massive rebuilding of the temple complex, but he and his descendants and courtiers were despised as complicit with the Romans and were thoroughly Hellenized. One of Herod’s sons, Archelaus, originally ruled Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, but was later deposed and replaced by a Roman procuratorship, the holder of which post was Pontius Pilate at the time of Jesus’ crucifixion (14).
The Institution of the Synagogue
Besides the various sects, another important aspect of first-century Judaism was the institution of the synagogue. The synagogue was the local cultural/social/religious center of life. It developed probably during the exile when there was no possibility for worshipping at the Temple. It was a local congregation of all the Jews in a district. It was governed by “elders” with a “ruler” at the head, and these were the ones empowered to enforce appropriate belief and behavior through excommunication. The services were not elaborate and not centered in ritual, rather they consisted of prayers, readings from the Law and the Prophets in their original Hebrew, the reading of their translation into Greek, an optional sermon, and a benediction. Because it allowed for Jewish identity to those living distant from the Temple, the institution of the synagogue grew increasingly important and persisted past the destruction of the Temple into the present day (12). The synagogues were fruitful places of Christian evangelization in the early years before the separation of Christianity from Judaism was complete (17). In fact, according to Schmemann, the Liturgy of the Catechumens grew out from the synagogue service (Schmemann 56).Sundry Jewish Movements
In addition to the sects and the synagogue, there were some influential movements in first-century Judaism, namely, messianism, apocalypticism, mysticism, and Hellenism. Messianism was the widespread belief and expectation shared by Pharisees and common people alike that God would directly intervene in history through a descendant of King David titled Messiah, who would overthrow Roman authority in Judea, establish the new Kingdom of God, gather the Jewish diaspora back to Judea, and inaugurate a golden age. This Messiah would be preceded by a forerunner. The Essenes envisioned not a single Messiah but four different persons working together to accomplish these goals: a prophet, a teacher, a high priest, and a king. In the Gospels, Jesus identified himself as the Messiah and identified John the Baptist as his forerunner. Later New Testament writers make it clear that he fulfilled each of those four roles (Walker 14 - 15). Supporting yet flowing from Messianism was a genre of literature called apocalypticism that portrayed the present age negatively, but held out a glorious age to come. Examples of this in the Old Testament is Daniel. Non-canonical literature included the Book of Enoch and the Assumption of Moses. The influence of this genre on Christianity is clearly seen in the New Testament book of Revelation. Although its full extent is hard to pin down, there was also a Jewish mystical piety that prospered in Palestine in areas away from the Temple. The Ode of Solomon express this mystical piety, and its influence can be seen in the ninth Biblical Ode comprising the Magnificat and the Benedictus (15).Hellenism was especially strong among the Jews who lived outside of Palestine. By the time of Christ’s nativity, the ratio of those living outside to those living within Palestine was probably 6 to 1. With the temple remote, the synagogue was central to Hellenistic Judaism. The religious beliefs of the Jews in the diaspora were generally respected by the authorities. In the early 3rd century BC, the Old Testament was translated into Greek, thus making it accessible to those not literate in Hebrew, including those not of Hebrew ancestry. In addition to proselytes, who were heathen that wholly converted to Hellenistic Judaism, there were also the “devout men,” who were those non-Hebrews that believed in one God, revered the Old Testament, and followed its strenuous morality while not fully adopting the rules associated with Sabbath, circumcision, and kosher eating (16 - 17). Especially in Alexandria, Egypt, Old Testament concepts were syncretistically combined with Greek philosophy with the result that the two were understood to be in essential harmony, and the Old Testament was the wisest of philosophical books. One Alexandrian Jew named Philo advanced the practice of allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament, which was widely used in early Christianity. He also posited that between God and His creation, there was a principle called Logos, which derived from God Himself and yet was His agent in creation. Related to this was the Jewish notion that God’s wisdom is a separate personal existence, which again is His agent in creation. Both of these foreshadowed John’s Gospel that identified the Logos with Jesus, the Son of God (17).
As can be seen, Christianity did not develop in a vacuum. It was birthed out of Judaism, which had a rich and varied heritage. There were multiple sects vying for influence. There was the institution of the synagogue where early Christians met and later whose services they imitated when they had their own meeting places. And there were a number of philosophical movements at work, each with its own influence.
Works Cited
Schmemann, Alexander. Introduction to Liturgical Theology. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s, 1986.Walker, Willison. A History of the Christian Church. New York: Scribners, 1959.
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